The former lieutenant-colonel had always insisted that his revolution was "peaceful, but armed". After purging the armed forces of all those suspected of disloyalty to the leader, he obliged officers and troops to adopt the Cuban-inspired slogan "socialist motherland or death", and created a militia answerable only to him. Thuggish, armed civilian groups also swore to defend the revolution against enemies within and without. These included opponents in the media, the universities and the church.
Emboldened by his election victory, Chávez moved to close down RCTV, the country's oldest television channel and a determined opponent of his regime. A hitherto dormant student movement re-awoke, took to the streets and – though it failed to save RCTV – helped stave off a bid by the president to rewrite the constitution yet again, this time along overtly dictatorial lines.
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At the same time, a couple of dozen laws – rushed through parliament with minimal debate – completed the process of implementing the bulk of the constitutional reform rejected by the electorate in 2007. In particular, a package of five laws aimed at setting up a "communal state" threatened to render what remained of representative democracy in Venezuela a purely decorative matter.
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Internationally, Chávez posed as an anti-imperialist and lavished aid on ideological allies. Venezuela would, he claimed, play a vital role in saving the planet from the evils of capitalism. In a notorious speech to the UN general assembly in 2006, he called US president George W Bush "the devil", claiming the podium still smelled of sulphur. It went down well in some quarters, but economic failure at home and the cosy relations he had enjoyed with dictators such as Robert Mugabe and Muammar Gaddafi would ultimately limit his appeal, even on the international left.